Written by:
Rodrigo Andrade Santos
Supervised by: Elise Alsteens
Edited by: Theodora Posta
Abstract:
The Russo-Ukrainian war has transformed Russia’s isolation into a network of pragmatic defence partnerships with China, Iran, and North Korea. This paper argues that what ties these four states, often grouped as the ‘Axis of Upheaval’, is less ideological unity than war-driven, pragmatic defence integration. Through cumulative bilateral cooperation, they have sustained Moscow’s military campaign since 2022 while enhancing their own capabilities. Chinese dual-use exports and energy trade, Iranian drones, and North Korean munitions and manpower epitomise this convergence. What began as wartime necessity is now carving pathways for a lasting framework of defence cooperation. This drawing of alternative routes for military collaboration in defiance of isolation is normalising rogue behaviour and parallel norms, thereby threatening the future of Western defence and security.
