The Role of AI Decision-Making for Land-Based Operations

In an era of technological ‘Oppenheimer momentum,’ Artificial Intelligence (AI) has emerged as the new frontier in military decision-making, presenting enormous promises and challenges. This paper investigates the transformational impact of AI in the context of European land-based military operations, focussing on how AI may speed up decision-making, improve interoperability, and reshape traditional command and control (C2) structures. AI’s unprecedented capacity to interpret large data sets in real time can improve battlefield responsiveness and operational efficiency, acting as a force multiplier in multi-domain operations. In the current context of global military competition, AI’s dual-purpose nature—its applicability in both civilian and military contexts—presents European ground forces with a competitive advantage, notably in sensor-to-shooter systems, predictive analysis, and autonomous decision-making. In addition to these improvements, this paper discusses the ethical, legal, and security problems connected with AI use for such purposes. As autonomous systems perform more complicated jobs, worries about accountability, transparency, and potential overreliance on opaque AI algorithms pose critical considerations about the future of combat and global security. The present study not only emphasises AI’s capacity to transform contemporary military decision- making mechanisms but also advocates for a strong governance structure that provides human supervision, ethical purity, and the preservation of international security standards in the context of unmanned conflict. On the one hand, PMCs participate in combats, from troops through training or instruction programmes, having a strong impact on the development of conflicts. On the other hand, PSCs dedicate themselves to tasks related to security and guard duties like protection of facilities or personnel in at- risk zones. While they both provide services to governments, PMCs are employed in training military forces and taking part in conflict zones, and PSCs are used primarily for non-combat missions such as personnel protection abroad and site security. However, by the nature of their work, both PMCs and PSCs may be engaged in violent scenarios. Therefore, it is also generally accepted to refer to them as Private Military and Security companies (PMSCs). The employment of additional resources to the national armies is a phenomenon which requires a comprehensive regulation on a national and international level. It is necessary, however, to draw a line between PMCs and PSCs, even if the lack of regulation and the similarity of tasks unite them. If the classification of PMSCs personnel in concrete category under the Geneva Conventions seems complex, the distinction between soldiers and civilians nevertheless still has to be made to understand what they can and cannot do in conflicts, eventually having an incidence on the rules of engagement they have to follow and the protection they could be granted or not. This paper will present their blurred status in law and their duties in missions led by European Member States, taking a look at the existing legislation and tools to hold them responsible for their actions. Analysing the relevant dispositions of International Law, this paper will try to clarify the risks and potential downfalls of employing such companies for domains normally part of State responsibilities solely. Furthermore, this paper will analyse the complex and fragmented legal framework governing these companies and their employment both on a European and national level, delving into the distinction of competencies between the EU and the national sovereignty of Member States, according to their own regulation on the matter. This will also be done through practical studies of the use of PMSCs in the Balkans region in the 1990s and in the Afghan conflict in the 21st century. Moreover, the paper will tackle the urgent necessity to strengthen the rules and norms that limit the actions of PMSCs to make sure that human rights and ethical boundaries are respected while they pursue their contracts.

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The Modernisation of the Italian Armed Forces after the 2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine

The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine has been a wake-up call for many countries in Europe, which decided to start a comprehensive modernization of their armed forces after decades of neglect. Although traditionally sceptical about prioritising the strengthening of its military, Italy is raising its defence expenditures to address the structural problems of its armed forces, which include a lack of personnel and adequate equipment. While these steps are surely essential, there is more that Italy can do to further improve the condition of its land, naval and air forces, including a better allocation of resources, the integration of innovative weapons systems in its arsenals and an increased proactivity in some European collaborative defence projects.

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Ground Robotics in Modern Combat

The automation of military vehicles and systems has long been a feature of warfare, but the emergence and development of ground robotics are revolutionising modern combat. Since their deployment in conflicts such as in Afghanistan and Iraq, ground robots have evolved into increasingly capable and autonomous entities integrated into military operations (Rosenberg, 2024). Fuelled by recent conflicts such as the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and the Russia-Ukraine War, which have highlighted the significant impact of military robotics on the battlefield, interest in the further development of this field continues. The development of unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) has proceeded slowly, with ongoing challenges and questions surrounding their integration into military operations and ground forces (Gosselin-Malo, 2023). This paper aims to outline the advancements in ground robotics, explore the rationale for their increased proliferation in warfare, outline potential challenges in their widespread integration, and briefly analyse the deployment of such ordnance in the ongoing Russia-Ukraine War.

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Implications of the Polish Land Forces Modernisation

Following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and Belarus’ alignment with Russia, Poland went on a shopping spree and returned with 1.000 K2 tanks and 672 K9 self-propelled howitzers from South Korea (Dmitruk, 2022). Earlier, Poland ordered 336 M1 Abrams tanks and requested 500 HIMARS and eight Patriot batteries in the United States (Tiles, 2022). Although most contracts have yet to be approved, the announcements signal Poland’s military ambitions of becoming the foremost land army in Europe. The numbers are reminiscent of Western Germany during the Cold War. As a frontline state, Western Germany fielded over 2.000 Leopard 2 tanks and several thousand Leopard 1 tanks. Besides the sheer numbers, the choice of suppliers is equally noteworthy. What does this paradigm shift tell us and how could it affect the European security landscape and the defence industry?

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THEIA Programme Spearheads UK Army’s Digitalisation Effort

In March 2021, the UK Government published its much-anticipated policy paper “Global Britain in a Competitive Age: The Integrated Review of Security, Defence, Development and Foreign Policy”. The publication of the policy paper resulted in a significant development for the UK Army’s ongoing digitalisation effort, namely the launch of project THEIA. Project THEIA, which is not an acronym but rather a reference to a figure in Greek mythology, seeks to create a change in the Army’s (digital) culture and behaviour

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