The potential consequences of cyberattacks under NATO’s Article 5: applying self-defence in cyberspace

The increasing frequency and sophistication of cyberattacks have transformed international conflicts and challenged the international legal framework regarding self-defence. Today, NATO members face security threats capable of causing widespread disruption without the use of physical force. These threats test the aptness of NATO's Article 5, which would be the legal basis for the invocation of the mutual defence clause in cyberspace. The Wales Summit Declaration and Brussels Summit Declaration recognised that cyberattacks may reach the threshold of an armed attack, potentially triggering Article 5. However, invoking Article 5 for a cyberattack raises further legal questions, particularly in relation to the attribution of responsibility and the applicability of the right to self-defence. The involvement of non-state actors and the inability to clearly prove state involvement in a cyberattack challenges the conventional way of executing retaliatory actions. International law, in its current form, fails to instruct states on how to apply self-defence in cyberspace. Hence, as NATO governments appear increasingly reliant on cyberspace for both military capabilities and public services, they should actively consider the uncertainty that would derive from a unilateral invocation of Article 5 in the case of a cyberattack.

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A Window of Opportunity for European Defence? Rare Earths and the China – US Trade War

This paper explores the implications of China’s April 2025 Rare Earth Element (REE) export restrictions for European defence security. While targeting the US, the measures expose Europe’s reliance on both Chinese REEs and US defence technologies. The paper argues that this disruption presents a strategic opportunity for Europe to reduce critical material dependencies, strengthen its defence industrial base, and advance strategic autonomy. It assesses the role of REEs in military systems, Europe’s current vulnerabilities, and potential responses, including diversification, domestic processing, and innovation. Despite challenges such as environmental constraints and institutional fragmentation, the crisis offers a rare chance for Europe to reinforce defence resilience and redefine its role in an evolving global security landscape.

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Should the European States Reintroduce Conscription and Military Reserve Programs?

Modern-day threats, challenges and increased geopolitical tensions aimed at the European security landscape have made several European states reconsider whether to reintroduce conscription and military reserve programs to enhance their national defence capabilities. Although conscription offers a wide-range of benefits, such as ensuring a broader pool of trained individuals, enabling faster mobilisation and reducing dependence on limited professional forces it also implies many ethical, societal and economic issues. Due to this ambivalence, this paper seeks to outline all the positive and negative aspects in order to evaluate their necessity in national defence strategies.

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Rwanda’s Campaign in Mozambique as a Counterinsurgency Case Study: A Radical Approach?

Rwanda’s campaign against the Islamic State in Mozambique since 2021 has attracted widespread praise from the international community. Characterised by civilian protection, its approach saw widespread success in pushing back jihadists in Mozambique. This was argued by some to act as a blueprint for future counterinsurgency campaigns, in stark contrast to recent Western efforts (ADF, 2023) and raises the question of whether Rwanda has adopted a radically different approach to counterinsurgency. This paper will examine the operations of the Rwandan Defence Forces (RDF) in northern Mozambique as a case study of an effective counterinsurgency campaign. It will begin by overviewing Rwandan operations in Mozambique, before examining how their approach aligns with counterinsurgency theory and recent Western examples. Finally, it explores the RDF’s the longer-term chances of success as a further test of theory and as another point of comparison with Western operations.

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Illusory or substantive? Analysing the European Union’s Support to the International Criminal Court

This paper explores whether the European Union’s support for the International Criminal Court (ICC) is substantive or illusory. By examining legal and policy commitments alongside the case studies of Ukraine and Libya, the research shows that EU support is context-dependent. In Ukraine, where judicial and political interests align, the EU provides tangible, substantive support. In Libya, stability and migration control take precedence, resulting in symbolic engagement and undermined cooperation. The paper argues that this difference stems from differing institutional logics: generally, the ICC pursues principles of justice and fairness, while the EU often prioritises political consequences.

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